References » Work-Learning Research

Representative Research Citations

The following list of citations from the world’s best scientific refeered journals and publications are representative of the research articles that inform our work. The researchers cited below—although often unknown to practitioners in the learning-and-performance field—are heroes on the front line of learning and educational improvement.

Aggleton, J. P., & Waskett, L. (1999). The ability of odours to serve as state-dependent cues for real-world memories: Can Viking smells aid the recall of Viking experiences? British Journal of Psychology, 90, 1-7.

Allen, G. A., Mahler, W. A., & Estes, W. K. (1969). Effects of recall tests on long-term retention of paired associates. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 463-470.

Alliger, Tannenbaum, Bennett, Traver, & Shotland (1997). A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50, 341-357.

Anderson, R. C. (1982). Allocation of attention during reading. In A. Flammer & W. Kintsch (Eds.), Discourse processing (pp. 292-305). New York: North-Holland.

Anderson, R. C., & Biddle, W. B. (1975). On asking people questions about what they are reading. In G. H. Bower (Ed.) The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 9). New York: Academic Press.

Anderson, R. C., Kulhavy, R. W., & Andre, T. (1971). Feedback procedures in programmed instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 148-156.

Anderson, R. C., Kulhavy, R. W., & Andre, T. (1972). Conditions under which feedback facilitates learning from programmed lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 186-188.

Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. (1992). The neuropsychology of sleep and dreaming. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Armstrong, T. R. (1970). Feedback and perceptual-motor skill learning: A review of information feedback and manual guidance training techniques. Technical Report No. 25, Human Performance Center, University of Michigan.

Ash, P. (1950). The relative effectiveness of massed versus spaced film presentation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 41, 19-30.

Austin, S. D. M. (1921). A study in logical memory. American Journal of Psychology, 32, 370-403.

Ausubel, D. P. (1966). Early versus delayed review in meaningful learning. Psychology in the Schools, 3, 195-198.

Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Essentials of human memory. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.

Bahrick, H. P. (1979). Maintenance of knowledge: Questions about memory we forgot to ask. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 296-308.

Bahrick, H. P., & Hall, L. K. (1991). Preventive and corrective maintenance of access to knowledge. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5, 1-18.

Bahrick, H. P., & Phelps, E. (1987). Retention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 344-349.

Bahrick, H. P., & Phelps, E. (1988). The maintenance of marginal knowledge. In U. Neisser & E. Winograd (Eds.), Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory (pp. 178-192). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E. (1993). Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science, 4, 316-321.

Balsam, P. D. (1985). The functions of context in learning and performance. In P. D. Balsam & A. Tomie (Eds.) Context and Learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Banas, J. A., & Rains, S. A. (2008, November). A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Communication Association, San Diego, CA.

Bangert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, C-L. C., Kulik, J. A., & Morgan, M. (1991). The instructional effect of feedback in test-like events. Review of Educational Research, 61, 213-238.

Bangert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. C. (1988). Effects of frequent classroom testing. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan.

Barnett, J. E., & Seefeldt, R. W. (1989). Read something once, why read it again?: Repetitive reading and recall. Journal of Reading Behavior, 21, 351-360.

Baumeister, R. F., Gailliot, M., DeWall, C. N., & Oaten, M. (2006). Self-Regulation and Personality: How Interventions Increase Regulatory Success, and How Depletion Moderates the Effects of Traits on Behavior. Journal of Personality, 74, 1773-1801.

Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 351-355.

Baumeister, R.F., Heatherton, T.F., & Tice, D.M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Bekerian, D. A., & Baddeley, A. D. (1980). Saturation advertising and the repetition effect. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 17-25.

Bell, H. H., & Waag, W. L. (1998). Evaluating the effectiveness of flight simulators for training combat skills: A review. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 8, 223-242.

Belton, T., & Priyadharshini, E. (2007). Boredom and schooling: A cross-disciplinary exploration. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37, 579-595. doi: 10.1080/03057640701706227

Berger, J., & Milkman, K. L. (2010). Social Transmission and Viral Culture. Retrieved February 9, 2010 from http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/Virality.pdf

Berger, S. A., Hall, L. K., & Bahrick, H. P. (1999). Stabilizing access to marginal and submarginal knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 438-447.

Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). On the adaptive aspects of retrieval failure in autobiographical memory. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, R. N. Sykes (Eds). Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues (Vol. 1: Memory in everyday life) (pp. 283-288). New York: Wiley.

Bjork, R. A. (1988). Retrieval practice and the maintenance of knowledge. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, Vol. 1., Memory in Everyday Life (pp. 396-401). NY: Wiley.

Bjork, R. A., & Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1989). On the puzzling relationship between environmental context and human memory. In C. Izawa (Ed.) Current Issues in Cognitive Processes: The Tulane Floweree Symposium on Cognition (pp. 313-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bloom, K. C., & Shuell, T. J. (1981). Effects of massed and distributed practice on the learning and retention of second-language vocabulary. Journal of Educational Research, 74, 245-248.

Bouton, M. E. (1993). Context, time, and memory retrieval in the interference paradigms of Pavlovian learning. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 80-99.

Bower, G. H., Monteiro, K. P., and Gilligan, S. G. (1978). Emotional mood as context for learning and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 573-585.

Bransford, J. D., Franks, J. J., Morris, C. D., & Stein, B. S. (1979). Some general constraints on learning and memory research. In L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Levels of processing in human memory (pp. 331-354). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bromage, B. (1981). Effects of repetition on comprehension of technical prose. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Department of Psychology, Santa Barbara. As cited in Mayer (1983).

Bromage, B. K., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). Quantitative and qualitative effects of repetition on learning from technical text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 271-278.

Bruce, D., & Bahrick, H. P. (1992). Perceptions of past research. American Psychologist, 47, 319-328.

Bruner, J. S. (1963). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bryan, W. L., & Harter, N. (1897). Studies in the physiology and psychology of the telegraphic language. Psychological Review, 4, 27-53.

Burger, J. M., Messian, N., Patel, S., del Prado, A., & Anderson, C. (2004). What a coincidence! The effects of incidental similarity on compliance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 35-43. doi: 10.1177/0146167203258838

Cain, L. F., & Willey, R. (1939). The effect of spaced learning on the curve of retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25, 209-214.

Carlson, R. A., & Yaure, R. G. (1990). Practice schedules and the use of cognitive skills in problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 484-496.

Carrier, M., & Pashler, H. (1992). The influence of retrieval on retention. Memory & Cognition, 20, 633-642.

Challis, B. H. (1993). Spacing effects on cued-memory tests depend on level of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 389-396.

Challis, B. H., & Sidhu, R. (1993). Dissociative effect of massed repetition on implicit and explicit measures of memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 115-127.

Christoff, K., Gordon, A. M., Smallwood, J., Smith, R., & Schooler, J. W. (2009). Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 8719-8724. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0900234106

Cialdini, R. B. (2009). Influence: Science and Practice, Fifth Edition. Boston: Pearson.

Clariana, R. B., Ross, S. M., & Morrison, G. R. (1991). The effects of different feedback strategies using computer-administered multiple-choice questions as instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39, 5-17.

Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53, 445-459.

Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-29.

Clawson, D. M., Healy, A. F., Ericsson, K. A., & Bourne, L. E., Jr. (2001). Retention and transfer of morse code reception skill by novices: Part-whole training. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7(2), 129-142.

Cobb, T. (1997). Cognitive efficiency: Toward a revised theory of media. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(4), 21-35.

Cousins, R., & Hanley, J. R. (1996). The effect of environmental context on recall and category clustering scores following relational and individual item processing: A test of the outshining hypothesis. Memory, 4, 79-90.

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.

Crooks, T. J. (1988). The impact of classroom evaluation practices on students. Review of Educational Research, 58, 438-481.

Crowder, R. G. (1976). Principles of learning and memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Cuddy, L. J., & Jacoby, L. L. (1982). When forgetting helps memory: An analysis of repetition effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 451-467.

Cull, W. L. (2000). Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 215-235.

Cull, W. L., Shaughnessy, J. J., & Zechmeister, E. B. (1996). Expanding understanding of the expanding-pattern-of-retrieval mnemonic toward confidence in applicability. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Applied, 2, 365-378.

d’Ydewalle, G. D., Swerts, A., & De Corte, E. (1983). Study time and test performance as a function of test expectations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 55-67.

Dalton, P. (1993). The role of stimulus familiarity in context-dependent recognition. Memory & Cognition, 21, 223-234.

Davies, G. (1986). Context effects in episodic memory: A review. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, 6, 157-174.

Dellarosa, D., & Bourne, Jr., L. E. (1985). Surface form and the spacing effect. Memory & Cognition, 13, 529-537.

Dempster, F. N. (1987a). Effects of variable encoding and spaced presentations on vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 162-170.

Dempster, F. N. (1987b). Time and the production of classroom learning: Discerning implications from basic research. Educational Psychologist, 22, 1-21.

Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research. American Psychologist, 43, 627-634.

Dempster, F. N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 309-330.

Dempster, F. N. (1996). Distributing and managing the conditions of encoding and practice. In E. L. Bjork & R. A. Bjork (Eds.) Memory (pp. 317-344). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Dempster, F. N., & Farris, R. (1990). The spacing effect: Research and practice. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 23, 97-101.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1996). The Systematic Design of Instruction. NY: HarperCollins.

Doane, S., Sohn, Y. W., & Schreiber, B. (1999). The role of processing strategies in the acquisition and transfer of a cognitive skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25(5), 1390-1410.

Drachman, D., DeCarufel, A., & Insko, C. A. (1978). The extra credit effect in interpersonal attraction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 458-465. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(78)90042-2

Driskell, J. E., Willis, R. P., & Copper, C. (1992). Effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 615-622.

Dulsky, S. G. (1935). The effect of a change of background on recall and relearning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 725-740.

Dumay, N., & Gaskell, M. G. (2007). Sleep-associated changes in the mental representation of spoken words. Psychological Science, 18, 35-39.

Durgunoğlu, A. Y., & Roediger, III, H. L. (1987). Test differences in accessing bilingual memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 377-391.

Durgunoğlu, A. Y., Mir, M., & Ariño-Martí, S. (1993). Effects of repeated readings on bilingual and monolingual memory for text. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 294-317.

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology, (Translated by H. A. Ruger and C. E. Bussenius). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. (Also available 1964 and 1987, New York: Dover Publications. Original published in 1885).

Eich, E. (1985). Context, memory, and integrated item/context imagery. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 764-770.

Eich, E. (1995). Mood as a mediator of place dependent memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124(3), 293-308.

Eich, J. E. (1980). The cue dependent nature of state dependent retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 8, 157-173.

Elmes, D. G., Dye, C. J., & Herdelin, N. J. (1983). What is the role of affect in the spacing effect? Memory & Cognition, 11, 144-151.

English, R. A., & Kinzer, J. R. (1966). The effect of immediate and delayed feedback on retention of subject matter. Psychology in the Schools, 3, 143-147.

Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The Influence of Experience and Deliberate Practice on the Development of Superior Expert Performance. In Ericsson, K. Anders (Ed); Charness, Neil (Ed); Feltovich, Paul J. (Ed); Hoffman, Robert R. (Ed), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. (pp. 683-703). New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A. (2009). Enhancing the development of professional performance: Implications from the study of deliberate practice. In Ericsson, K. Anders (Ed), Development of professional expertise: Toward measurement of expert performance and design of optimal learning environments. (pp. 405-431). New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49, 725-774.

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.

Fang, X., Singh, S., & Ahluwalia, R. (2007). An examination of different explanations for the mere exposure effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 97-103. doi: 10.1086/513050

Fendrich, D. W., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, Jr., L. E. (1991). Long-term repetition effects for motoric and perceptual procedures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 137-151.

Fernandez, A., & Glenberg, A. M. (1985). Changing environmental context does not reliably affect memory. Memory & Cognition, 13, 333-345.

Fontana, F. E., Mazzardo, O., Furtado, O., Jr., & Gallagher, J. D. (2009). Whole and part practice: A meta-analysis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 109(2), 517-530.

Foos, P. W., & Clark, M. C. (1983). Learning from text: Effects of input order and expected test. Human Learning, 2, 177-185.

Foos, P. W., & Fisher, R. P. (1988). Using tests as learning opportunities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 179-183.

Frase, L. T. (1967). Learning from prose material: Length of passage, knowledge of results, and position of questions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 266-272.

Frase, L. T., & Kreitzberg, V. S. (1975). Effect of topical and indirect learning directions on prose recall. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 320-324.

Frese, M., & Sabini, J. (Eds.). (1985). Goal-directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gailliot, M. T., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). The physiology of willpower: Linking blood glucose to self-control. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 303-327.

Gailliot, M. T., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Maner, J. K., Plant, E. A., Tice, D. M., Brewer, L. E., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 325-336.

Gall, M. D., Ward, B. A., Berliner, D. C., Cahen, L. S., Winne, P. H., Elashoff, J. D., & Stanton, G. C. (1978). Effects of questioning techniques and recitation on student learning. American Educational Research Journal, 15, 175-199.

Gardiner, J. M., Kaminska, Z., Dixon, M., & Java, R. I. (1996). Repetition of previously novel melodies sometimes increases both remember and know responses in recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 366-371.

Gardner, M. K., Rothkopf, E. Z., Lapan, R., & Lafferty, T. (1987). The word frequency effect in lexical decision: Finding a frequency-based component. Memory & Cognition, 15, 24-28.

Garner, R., Alexander, P. A, Gillingham, M. G., & Brown, R. (1991). Interest and learning from text. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 643-659.

Garner, R., Brown, R., Sanders, S., & Menke, D. J. (1992). “Seductive Details” and learning from text. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The Role of Interest in Learning and Development (pp. 239-277). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Garner, R., Gillingham, M. G., & White, C. S. (1989). Effects of “seductive details” on macroprocessing and microprocessing in adults and children. Cognition and Instruction, 6, 41-57.

Gartman, L. M., & Johnson, N. F. (1972). Massed versus distributed repetition of homographs: A test of the differential encoding hypothesis. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 801-808.

Gates, A. I. (1917). Recitation as a factor in memorizing. Archives of Psychology, 26, 1-104.

Ghodsian, D., Bjork, R. A., & Benjamin, A. S. (1997). Evaluating training during training: Obstacles and opportunities. In M. A. Quiñones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.) Training for a rapidly changing workplace: Applications of psychological research (pp. 63-88). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Gladstone, G., & Parker, G. (2003). What’s the use of worrying? Its function and its dysfunction. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 347-354. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1614.2003.01187.x

Glanzer, M., & Duarte, A. (1971). Repetition between and within languages in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 625-630.

Glenberg, A. M. (1976). Monotonic and nonmonotonic lag effect in paired-associate and recognition memory paradigms. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 1-16.

Glenberg, A. M. (1977). Influences of retrieval processes on the spacing effect in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 3, 282-294.

Glenberg, A. M. (1979). Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing and repetitions on recall and recognition. Memory & Cognition, 7, 95-112.

Glenberg, A. M., & Lehmann, T. S. (1980). Spacing repetitions over 1 week. Memory & Cognition, 8, 528-538.

Glover, J. A. (1989). The “testing” phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 392-399.

Glover, J. A., & Corkill, A. J. (1987). Influence of paraphrased repetitions on the spacing effect. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 198-199.

Godden, D. R., and Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context dependency in two natural environments: on land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 99-104.

Godden, D., & Baddeley, A. (1980). When does context influence recognition memory? British Journal of Psychology, 71, 99-104.

Goettl, B. P., & Shute, V. J. (1996). Analysis of part-task training using the backward-transfer technique. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2(3), 227-249.

Goetz, E. T., & Sadoski, M. (1995). The perils of seduction: Distracting details or incomprehensible abstractions? Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 500-511.

Gordon, K. (1925). Class results with spaced and unspaced memorizing. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 8, 337-343.

Grant, H. M., Bredahl, L. C., Clay, J., Ferrie, J., Groves, J. E., McDorman, T. A., & Dark, V. J. (1998). Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: Information for students. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 617-623.

Greene, R. L. (1989). Spacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two-process account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 371-377.

Guéguen, N., & Martin, A. (2009). Incidental similarity facilitates behavioral mimicry. Social Psychology, 40, 88-92. doi: 10.1027/1864-9335.40.2.88

Guéguen, N., & Pascual, A. (2005). Improving the Response Rate to a Street Survey: An Evaluation of the “But You Are Free to Accept or to Refuse” Technique. The Psychological Record, 55, 297-303.

Gueguen, N., Pichot, N., & Le Dreff, G. (2005). Similarity and helping behavior on the Web: The impact of the convergence of surnames between a solicitor and a solicitee in a request made by e-mail. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 423-429.

Guéguen, N., Pichot, N., & Le Dreff, G. (2005). Similarity and Helping Behavior on the Web: The Impact of the Convergence of Surnames Between a Solicitor and a Subject in a Request Made by E-Mail. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 423-429. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02128.x

Guthrie, J. T. (1971). Feedback and sentence learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 23-28.

Haidt, Jonathan (2006), The happiness hypothesis: Finding modern truth in ancient wisdom, New York: Basic Books.

Hall, J. F. (1971). Verbal learning and retention. Philadelphia, Lippincott.

Hall, K. G., Domingues, D. A., Cavazos, R. (1994). Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 835-841.

Hamaker, C. (1986). The effects of adjunct questions on prose learning. Review of Educational Research, 56, 212-242.

Hamilton, R. J. (1985). A framework for the evaluation of the effectiveness of adjunct questions and objectives. Review of Educational Research, 55, 47-85.

Harp, S. F., & Mayer, R. E. (1997). The role of interest in learning from scientific text and illustrations: On the distinction between emotional interest and cognitive interest. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 92-102.

Healy, A. F., Fendrich, D. W., & Proctor, J. D. (1990). Acquisition and retention of a letter-detection skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 270-281.

Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.

Herz, R. S. (1997). The effects of cue distinctiveness on odor-based context-dependent memory. Memory & Cognition, 25(3), 375-380.

Hinds, P. J. (1999). The curse of expertise: The effects of expertise and debiasing methods on predictions of novice performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 205-221.

Hintzman, D. L. (1974). Theoretical implications of the spacing effect. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 77-99). Potomac, MD: Erlbaum.

Hintzman, D. L. (1976). Repetition and memory. In Bower, G. H. (Ed.) The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 10) Advances in theory and research (pp. 47-91). New York: Academic Press.

Hintzman, D. L. (1987). Personal Communication. Cited by Dempster (1989, p. 326).

Hofmann, S. G., Moscovitch, D. A., Litz, B. T., Kim, H., Davis, L. L., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2005). The Worried Mind: Autonomic and Prefrontal Activation During Worrying. Emotion, 5, 464-475. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.464.

Hogan, R. M., & Kintsch, W. (1971). Differential effects of study and test trials on long-term recognition and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 562-567.

Hyoenae, J., & Niemi, P. (1990). Eye movements during repeated reading of a text. Acta Psychologica, 73, 259-280.

Ivanov, B., Pfau, M., & Parker, K. A. (2009). Can inoculation withstand multiple attacks?: An examination of the effectiveness of the inoculation strategy compared to the supportive and restoration strategies. Communication Research, 36, 655-676.

Iyengar, S.S., & Lepper, M.R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 995–1006.

Izawa, C. (1992). Test trials contributions to optimization of learning processes: Study/test trials interactions. In A. F. Healy, S. M. Kosslyn, & R. M. Shiffrin (Eds.) From Learning Processes to Cognitive Processes: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes (Volume 2, pp. 1-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jacoby, L. L. (1978). On interpreting the effects of repetition: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 649-667.

Jacoby, L. L. (1983). Remembering the data: Analyzing interactive processes in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 485-508.

Jentsch, F., & Bowers, C. A. (1998). Evidence for the validity of PC-based simulations in studying aircrew coordination. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 8, 243-260.

Jones, H. E. (1923-1924). Experimental studies of college teaching: The effect of examination on permanence of learning. Archives of Psychology, 10, 5-70.

Kahana, M. J., & Greene, R. L. (1993). Effects of spacing on memory for homogenous lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 159-162.

Kaplan, R. (1974). Effects of learning prose with part versus whole presentations of instructional objectives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 448-456.

Kaplan, R., & Rothkopf, E. Z. (1974). Instructional objectives as directions to learners: Effect of passage length and amount of objective-relevant content. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 448-456.

Karraker, R. J. (1967). Knowledge of results and incorrect recall of plausible multiple-choice alternatives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 11-14.

Kausler, D. H., Wiley, J. G., & Phillips, P. L. (1990). Adult age differences in memory for massed and distributed repeated actions. Psychology and Aging, 5, 530-534.

Keller, K.L., & Staelin, R. (1987). Effects of quality and quantity of information on decision effectiveness. Journal of Consumer Research, 14, 200–213.

Keltner, Dacher and Jon Haidt (2003), “Approaching awe: a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion,” Cognition and Emotion, 17, 297-314.

Kernan, M. G., & Lord, R. G. (1989). The effects of explicit goals and specific feedback on escalation processes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 1125-1143.

Kiewra, K. A. (1989). A review of note taking: The encoding-storage paradigm and beyond. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 147—172.

Kiewra, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Christensen, M., Kim, S-I., & Risch, N. (1991). Effects of repetition on recall and note-taking strategies for learning from lectures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 120-123.

Klauer, K. J. (1984). Intentional and incidental learning with instructional texts: A meta-analysis for 1970-1980. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 323-339.

Klein, R. D., & Fleck, R. A. (1990). International business simulation/gaming: An assessment and review. Simulation and Gaming, 21, 147-165.

Koulack, D. (1997). Recognition memory, circadian rhythms, and sleep. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 85, 99-104.

Kozma, R. B. (1994). A reply: Media and methods. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(3), 11-14.

Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7-19.

Krueger, W. C. F. (1929). The effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 71-78.

Krug, D., Davis, T. B., & Glover, J. A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 366-371.

Kulhavy, R. W. (1977). Feedback in written instruction. Review of Educational Research, 47, 211-232.

Kulhavy, R. W., & Anderson, R. C. (1972). Delay-retention effect with multiple-choice tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 505-512.

Kulhavy, R. W., & Stock, W. A. (1989). Feedback in written instruction: The place of response certitude. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 279-308.

Kulhavy, R. W., Yekovich, F. R., & Dyer, J. W. (1976). Feedback and response confidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 522-528.

Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C-L. C. (1988). Timing of feedback and verbal learning. Review of Educational Research, 58, 79-97.

Kuo, T. M., & Hirshman, E. (1996). Investigations of the testing effect. American Journal of Psychology, 109, 451-464.

Lachman, R., & Laughery, K. R. (1968). Is a test trial a training trial in free recall learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76, 40-50.

Landaeur, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes, (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory (pp. 625-632). New York: Academic Press.

Landaeur, T. K., & Ross, B. H. (1977). Can simple instructions to used spaced practice improve ability to remember a fact?: An experimental test using telephone numbers. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 10, 215-218.

Landauer, T. K., & Ainslie, K. I. (1975). Exams and use as preservatives of course-acquired knowledge. Journal of Educational Research, 69, 99-104.

Landauer, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes, (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory (pp. 625-632). London: Academic Press.

Landauer, T. K., & Eldridge, L. (1967). Effect of tests without feedback and presentation-test interval in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75, 290-298.

Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal-setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 212-247.

Latham, G. P., & Yukl, G. A. (1975). A review of research on the application of goal setting in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 18, 824-845.

Lavery, J. J. (1962). Retention of simple motor skills as a function of type of knowledge of results. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 16, 300-311.

Lavery, J. J. (1964). Retention of a skill following training with and without instructions to retain. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 18, 275-281.

Lee, T. D., & Magill, R. A. (1983). The locus of contextual interference in motor-skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 730-746.

Levav, J., & Argo, J. (2010). Physical contact and financial risk taking. Psychological Science OnlineFirst, published on April 22, 2010 as doi:10.1177/0956797610369493.

Lim, J., Reiser, R. A., & Olina, Z. (2009). The effects of part-task and whole-task instructional approaches on acquisition and transfer of a complex cognitive skill. Educational Technology Research and Development, 57(1), 61-77.

Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157-189.

Locke, E. A., & Henne, D. (1986). Work motivation theories. In C. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology. Chichester, England: Wiley.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. M., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969-1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 125-152.

Madigan, S. A. (1969). Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 828-835.

Mager, R. F. (1997; 1962). Preparing instructional objectives. Atlanta, GA: Center for Effective Performance.

Magill, R. (1993). Augmented feedback in skill acquisition. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology (pp. 193-212). NY: Macmillan.

Magliero, A. (1983). Pupil dilations following pairs of identical and related to-be-remembered words. Memory & Cognition, 11, 609-615.

Marian, V., & Neisser, E. (2000). Language-dependent recall of autobiographical memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129, 361-368.

Marmurek, H. H. C., Holt, P. D., & Coe, K. (1978). Presentation mode and repetition effects in free recall. American Journal of Psychology, 91, 483-490.

Martin, M., & Jones, G. V. (1998). Generalizing everyday memory: Signs and handedness. Memory & Cognition, 26, 193-200.

Mattoon, J. S. (1994). Designing instructional simulations: Effects of instructional control and type of training task on developing display-interpretation skills. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 4(3), 189-209.

Mayer, R. E. (1983). Can you repeat that? Qualitative effects of repetition and advance organizers on learning from science prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 40-49.

Mayer, R. E. (1989). Systematic thinking fostered by illustrations in scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 240-246.

Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32, 1-19.

Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 715-726.

Maylor, E. A. (1998). Retrieving names in old age: Short- and (very) long-term effects of repetition. Memory & Cognition, 26, 309-319.

McCaul, K. D., Mullens, A. B., Romanek, K. M., Erickson, S. C., & Gatheridge, B. J. (2007). The motivational effects of thinking and worrying about the effects of smoking cigarettes. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 1780-1798. doi: 10.1080/02699930701442840

McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2009). Conducting the train of thought: Working memory capacity, goal neglect, and mind wandering in an executive-control task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 196-204. doi: 10.1037/a0014104

Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596-606.

Mento, A. J., Steel, R. P., Karren, R. J. (1987). A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal setting on task performance: 1966-1984. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 52-83.

Meyer, G. (1934). An experimental study of the old and new types of examination: I. The effect of the examination set on memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 25, 641-661.

Meyer, G. (1935). An experimental study of the old and new types of examination: II. Methods of study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 26, 30-40.

Meyer, W., Niepel, M., Rudolph, U., & Schützwohl, A. (1991). An experimental analysis of surprise. Cognition and Emotion, 5, 295-311.

Mita, T. H., Dermer, M., & Knight, J. (1977). Reversed facial images and the mere-exposure hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 597-601. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.35.8.597

Modigliani, V. (1976). Effects on a later recall by delaying initial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 609-622.

Modigliani, V. (1978). Effects of initial testing on later retention as a function of the initial retention interval. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes, (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory (pp. 652-659). London: Academic Press.

Modigliani, V., & Hedges, D. G. (1987). Distributed rehearsals and the primacy effect in single-trial free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 426-436.

Modigliani, V., Rea, C. P., & Hedges, D. G. (1988). Within-story recalls and the retention of ideas in prose processing. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 20, 73-84.

Moore, J. W., & Smith, W. I. (1961). Knowledge of results in self-teaching spelling. Psychological Reports, 9, 717-726.

More, A. (1969). Delay of feedback and the acquisition and retention of verbal materials in the classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 339-342.

Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia learning: The case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 117-125.

Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2002). Learning science in virtual reality multimedia environments: Role of methods and media. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 598-610.

Morris, P. E., & Fritz, C. O. (2000). The name game: Using retrieval practice to improve the learning of names. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 6, 124-129.

Mory, E. H. (1992). The use of informational feedback in instruction: Implications for future research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40, 5-20.

Muraven, M., & Slessareva, E. (2003). Mechanisms of self-control failure: Motivation and limited resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 894–906.

Muraven, M., Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1999). Longitudinal improvement of self-regulation through practice: Building self-control strength through repeated exercise. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139, 446-457.

Muraven, M., Shmueli, D., & Burkley, E. (2006). Conserving self-control strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 524–537.

Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774-789.

Muth, K. D., Glynn, S. M., Britton, B. K., & Graves, M. F. (1988). Thinking out loud while studying text: Rehearsing key ideas. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 315-318.

Naylor, G., & Briggs, J. (1963) Effects of task complexity and task organization on the relative efficiency of part and whole training methods. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, 217-224.

Naylor, J. C. (1962). Parameters affecting the relative efficiency of part and whole training methods: A review of the literature (Report No. NAVTRADEVCEN 950-1). Port Washington, NY: U. S. Naval Training Device Center.

Neely, J. H., & Balota, D. A. (1981). Test-expectancy and semantic-organization effects in recall and recognition. Memory & Cognition, 9, 283-300.

Newman, M. I., Williams, R. G., & Hiller, J. H. (1974). Delay of information feedback in an applied setting: Effects on initially learned and unlearned items. Journal of Experimental Education, 42, 55-59.

Nickerson, R. S., & Adams, M. J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 287-307.

Nungester, R. J., & Duchastel, P. C. (1982). Testing versus review: Effects on retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 18-22.

Oldjoke, W. M. (1958). How do you get to Carnegie Hall? Practice, practice, practice!! Journal of Will’s Memory, 1, 1-2.

Pan, S. (1926). The influence of context upon learning and recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 468-491.

Parker, A., & Gellatly, A. (1997). Moveable cues: A practical method for reducing context-dependent forgetting. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, 163-173.

Parkin, A. J., Wood, A., & Aldrich, F. K. (1988). Repetition and active listening: The effects of spacing self-assessment questions. British Journal of Psychology, 79, 77-86.

Pascual, A., & Guéguen, N. (2005). Foot-in-the-door and Door-in-the-face: A Comparative Meta-analytic Study. Psychological Reports, 96, 122-128. doi: 10.2466/PR0.96.1.122-128

Peeck, J., van den Bosch, A. B., & Kreupeling, W. J. (1985). Effects of informative feedback in relation to retention of initial responses. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 10, 303-313.

Perkins, A. M., & Corr, P. J. (2005). Can worriers be winners? The association between worrying and job performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 25-31. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.03.008

Phye, G. D. (1991). Advice and feedback during cognitive training: Effects at acquisition and delayed transfer. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 16, 87-94.

Phye, G. D., & Andre, T. (1989). Delayed retention effect: Attention, perseveration, or both. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14, 173-185.

Phye, G. D., & Sanders, C. E. (1994). Advice and feedback: Elements of practice for problem solving. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 286-301.

Pichert, J. W., & Anderson, R. C. (1977). Taking different perspectives on a story. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 309-315.

Plihal, W., & Born, J. (1997). Effects of early and late nocturnal sleep on declarative and procedural memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 534-547.

Plihal, W., & Born, J. (1999). Effects of early and late nocturnal sleep on priming and spatial memory. Psychophysiology, 36, 571-582.

Pressley, M., Tanenbaum, R., McDaniel, M. A., & Wood, E. (1990). What happens when university students try to answer prequestions that accompany textbook material? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 15, 27-35.

Pyle, W. H. (1913). Economical learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 148-158.

Racsmány, M., Conway, M. A., & Demeter, G. (2010). Consolidation of episodic memories during sleep: Long-term effects of retrieval practice. Psychological Science, 21(1), 80-85.

Rea, C. P., & Modigliani, V. (1985). The effect of expanded versus massed practice on the retention of multiplication facts and spelling lists. Human Learning, 4, 11-18.

Rea, C. P., & Modigliani, V. (1987). The spacing effect in 4- to 9-year-old children. Memory & Cognition, 15, 436-443.

Rea, C. P., & Modigliani, V. (1988). Educational implications of the spacing effect. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.) Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, Vol. 1: Memory in everyday life (pp. 402-406). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Reder, L. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1982). Effects of spacing and embellishment on memory for the main points of a text. Memory & Cognition, 10, 97-102.

Reiser, R. A. (1994). Clark’s invitation to the dance: An instructional designer’s response. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 45-48.

Rethans, A. J., Swasy, J. L., & Marks, L. J. (1986). Effects of television commercial repetition, receiver knowledge, and commercial length: A test of the two-factor model. Journal of Marketing Research, 23, 50-61.

Reynolds, J. H., & Glaser, R. (1964). Effects of repetition and spaced review upon retention of a complex learning task. Journal of Educational Psychology, 55, 297-308.

Reynolds, R. E., Trathen, W., Sawyer, M. L., & Shepard, C. R. (1993). Causal and epiphenomenal use of selective attention strategy in prose comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 258-278.

Riccio, D. C., Richardson, R., & Ebner, D. L. (1984). Memory retrieval deficits based upon altered contextual cues: A paradox. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 152-165.

Rickards, J. P. (1979). Adjunct postquestions in text: A critical review of methods and processes. Review of Educational Research, 49, 181-196.

Roediger, H. L., & Challis, B. H. (1992). Effects of exact repetition and conceptual repetition on free recall and primed word-fragment completion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 3-14.

Roediger, H. L., III, & Guynn, M. J. (1996). Retrieval processes. In E. L. Bjork & R. A. Bjork (eds.), Memory (pp. 197-236). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Rose, R. J. (1992). Degree of learning, interpolated tests, and rate of forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 20, 621-632.

Ross, R. T., & Pirie, M. (1934). The persistence of errors in successive true-false tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 25, 422-426.

Rothkopf, E. Z. (1963). Some observations on predicting instructional effectiveness by simple inspection. The Journal of Programmed Instruction, 2, 19-20.

Rothkopf, E. Z. (1965). Some theoretical and experimental approaches to problems in written instruction. In J. D. Krumboltz (Ed.), Learning and the educational process (pp. 193-221). Chicago: Rand McNally.

Rothkopf, E. Z. (1966). Learning from written instructive materials: An exploration of the control of inspection behavior by test-like events. American Educational Research Journal, 3, 241-249.

Rothkopf, E. Z. (1968). Textual constraint as function of repeated instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 20-25.

Rothkopf, E. Z. (1982). Adjunct aids and the control of mathemagenic activities during purposeful reading. In W. Otto & S. White (Eds.) Reading expository material. New York: Academic Press.

Rothkopf, E. Z., & Billington, M. J. (1975). Relevance and similarity of text elements to descriptions of learning goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 745-750.

Rothkopf, E. Z., & Billington, M. J. (1979). Goal-guided learning from text: Inferring a descriptive processing model from inspection times and eye movements. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 310-327.

Rothkopf, E. Z., & Bisbicos, E. E. (1967). Selective facilitative effects of interspersed questions on learning from written material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 56-61.

Rothkopf, E. Z., & Coke, E. U. (1963). Repetition interval and rehearsal method in learning equivalences from written sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 406-416.

Rothkopf, E. Z., & Coke, E. U. (1966). Variations in phrasing, repetition intervals, and the recall of sentence material. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 86-91.

Rothkopf, E. Z., & Kaplan, R. (1972). An exploration of the effect of density and specificity of instructional objectives on learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 6, 295-302.

Rothstein, A. L., & Arnold, R. K. (1976). Bridging the gap: Application of research on video-tape feedback and bowling. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice, 1, 35-62.

Ruch, T. C. (1928). Factors influencing the relative economy of massed and distributed practice in learning. Psychological Review, 35, 19-45.

Runquist, W. (1983). Some effects of remembering on forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 11, 641-650.

Runquist, W. (1986). The effect of testing on the forgetting of related and unrelated associates. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 65-76.

Russo, R., Parkin, A. J., Taylor, S. R., & Wilks, J. (1998). Revising current two-process accounts of spacing effects in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 161-172.

Russo, R., Ward, G., Geurts, H., & Scheres, A. (1999). When unfamiliarity matters: Changing environmental context between study and test affects recognition memory for unfamiliar stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 488-499.

Salasoo, A., Shiffrin, R. M., & Feustel, T. C. (1985). Building permanent memory codes: Codification and repetition effects in word identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 50-77.

Salden, R. J. C. M. (2005). Dynamic task selection in aviation training. Report NLR-TP-2004-465. National Aerospace Laboratory NLR. Downloaded September 2010 at http://www.nlr.nl/id~2851/lang~en.pdf.

Salden, R. J. C. M., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006). A comparison of approaches to learning task selection in the training of complex cognitive skills. Computers in Human Behavior, 22(3), 321-333.

Salmoni, A. W., Schmidt, R. A, & Walter, C. B. (1984). Knowledge of results and motor learning: A review and critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 355-386.

Sassenrath, J. M. (1975). Theory and results on feedback and retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 894-899.

Sassenrath, J. M., & Gaverick, C. M. (1965). Effects of differential feedback from examinations on retention and transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 259-263.

Sassenrath, J. M., & Yonge, G. D. (1968). Delayed information feedback, feedback cues, retention set, and delayed retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 69-73.

Sassenrath, J. M., & Yonge, G. D. (1969). Effects of delayed information feedback and feedback cues in learning on delayed retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 174-177.

Schab, F. R. (1990). Odors and remembrances of things past. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 8, 648-655.

Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 207-217.

Schmidt, S. R. (1983). The effects of recall and recognition test expectancies on the retention of prose. Memory & Cognition, 11, 172-180.

Schraw, G. (1998). Processing and recall differences among seductive details. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 3-12.

Schützwohl, A. (1998). Surprise and schema strength. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1182-1199.

Shah, A. M., & Wolford, G. (2007). Buying behavior as a function of parametric variation of number of choices. Psychological Science, 18, 369-370.

Shaughnessy, J. J., Zimmerman, J., & Underwood, B. J. (1972). Further evidence on the MP-DP effect in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 1-12.

Shea, J. B., & Morgan, R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 179-187.

Shebilske, W. L., Goettl, B. P., Corrington, K., & Day, E. A. (1999). Interlesson spacing and task-related processing during complex skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 413-437.

Shiota, Michelle, Dacher Keltner, and Amanda Mossman (2007), “The nature of awe: elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept,” Cognition and Emotion, 21, 944-963.

Shrock, S. A. (1994). The media influence debate: Read the fine print, but don’t lose sight of the big picture. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 49-53.

Simon, H. A., & Chase, W. G. (1973). Skill in chess. American Scientist, 61, 394-403.

Singh, S. N., Mishra, S., Bendapudi, N., & Linville, D. (1994). Enhancing memory of television commercials through message spacing. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 384-392.

Sitzmann, T., Brown, K. G., Casper, W. J., Ely, K., & Zimmerman, R. D. (2008). A review and meta-analysis of the nomological network of trainee reactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 280-295.

Sitzmann, Traci, Brown, Kenneth G., Ely, Katherine, Kraiger, Kurt and Wisher, Robert A. (2009) A Cyclical Model of Motivational Constructs in Web-Based Courses, Military Psychology, 21, 534 — 551.

Smallwood, J., Fishman, D. J., & Schooler, J. W. (2007). Counting the cost of an absent mind: Mind wandering as an underrecognized influence on educational performance. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 230-236.

Smith, L., & Klein, R. (1990). Evidence for semantic satiation: Repeating a category slows subsequent semantic processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 16, 852-861.

Smith, S. M. (1979). Remembering in and out of context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 460-471.

Smith, S. M. (1982). Enhancement of recall using multiple environmental contexts during learning. Memory & Cognition, 10, 405-412.

Smith, S. M. (1984). A comparison of two techniques for reducing context-dependent forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 12, 477-482.

Smith, S. M. (1985). Background music and context-dependent memory. American Journal of Psychology, 98, 591-603.

Smith, S. M. (1988). Environmental context-dependent memory. In G. M. Davies & D. M. Thomson (eds.) Memory in Context: Context in Memory (pp. 13-34), Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Smith, S. M. (1995). Mood is a component of mental context: Comment on Eich (1995). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124(3), 309-310.

Smith, S. M., & Rothkopf, E. Z. (1984). Contextual enrichment and distribution of practice in the classroom. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 341-358.

Smith, S. M., & Vela, E. (2001). Environmental context-dependent memory: A review and meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 203-220.

Smith, S. M., Glenberg, A., and Bjork, R. A. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. Memory and Cognition, 6, 342-353.

Spear, N. E. (1978). The processing of memories: Forgetting and retention. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Spitzer, H. F. (1939). Studies in retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 641-656.

Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S., Jr. (1986). The role of chronic and temporary goals in social information processing. In R. M Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 503-549). New York: Guilford Press.

Stammers, R. B. (1982). Part and whole practice in training for procedural tasks. Human Learning, 1, 185-207.

Stickgold, R., & Walker, M. P. (2005). Memory consolidation and reconsolidation: What is the role of sleep? Trends in Neurosciences, 28, 408-415.

Sturges, P. T. (1969). Verbal retention as a function of the informativeness and delay of informative feedback. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 11-14.

Sturges, P. T. (1972). Information delay and retention: Effect of information in feedback and tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 32-43.

Sturges, P. T. (1978). Delay of informative feedback in computer-assisted testing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 378-387.

Surber, J. R., & Anderson, R. C. (1975). Delay-retention effect in natural classroom settings. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 170-173.

Swinnen, S. P. (1990). Interpolated activities during the knowledge-of-results delay and post-knowledge of results interval: Effects on performance and learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 692-705.

Swinnen, S. P., Schmidt, R. A., Nicholson, D. E., & Shapiro, D. C. (1990). Information feedback for skill acquisition: Instantaneous knowledge of results degrades learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 706-716.

Teague, R. C., Gittelman, S. S., & Park, O. (1994). A review of the literature on part-task and whole-task training and context dependency. (ARI Technical Report 1010). U.S. Army Research Institute.

Thalheimer, W. H. (1996). Information-acquisition goals: How questions produce learning through non-strategic processing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College.

Thios, S. J. (1972). Memory for words in repeated sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 789-793.

Toppino, T. C. (1991). The spacing effect in young children’s free recall: Support for automatic-process explanations. Memory & Cognition, 19, 159-167.

Toppino, T. C., & Brochin, H. A. (1989). Learning from tests: The case of true-false examinations. Journal of Educational Research, 83, 119-124.

Toppino, T. C., & Gracen, T. F. (1985). The lag effect and differential organization theory: Nine failures to replicate. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 185-191.

Tsai, C. I., Klayman, J., & Hastie, R. (2008). Effects of amount of information on judgment accuracy and confidence. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 107, 97-105.

Tubbs, M. E. (1986). Goal setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 474-483.

Tulving, E., & Thompson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.

VanSickle, R. L. (1986). A quantitative review of research on instructional simulation gaming: A twenty-year perspective. Theory & Research in Social Education, 14, 245-264.

Vela, E. (1984). Memory as a function of environmental context. Paper presented at the 30^th annual meeting of the Southwest Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA.

Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Twenge, J. M., Nelson, N. M., & Tice, D. M. (2008). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 883-898.

Wade, S. E., & Adams, B. (1990). Effects of importance and interest on recall of biographical text. JRB: A Journal of Literacy, 22, 331-353.

Wade, S. E., Schraw, G., Buxton, W. M., & Hayes, M. T. (1993). Seduction of the strategic reader: Effects of interest on strategies and recall. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 3-24.

Wagner, A. D., Desmond, J. E., Demb, J. B., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1997). Semantic repetition priming for verbal and pictorial knowledge: A functional MRI study of left inferior prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 714-726.

Walker, M. P., Brakefield, T., Morgan, A., Hobson, J. A., & Stickgold, R. (2002). Practice with sleep makes perfect: Sleep-dependent motor skill learning. Neuron, 35, 205-211.

Waugh, N. C. (1962). The effect of intralist repetition on free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 95-99.

Webb, J. M., Stock, W. A., & McCarthy, M. T. (1994). The effects of feedback timing on learning facts: The role of response confidence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 251-265.

Weisberg, Deena Skolnick; Keil, Frank C.; Goodstein, Joshua; Rawson, Elizabeth; Gray, Jeremy R. (2008). The seductive allure of neuroscience explanations. Weisberg, D. S., Keil, F. C., Goodstein, J., Rawson, E., & Gray, J. R. (2008). The seductive allure of neuroscience explanations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(3), 470-477.

Weiss, W., & Margolis, G. (1954). The effect of context stimuli on learning and retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48, 318-322.

Wells, J. E., & Kirsner, K. (1974). Repetition between and within modalities in free recall. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2(4B), 395-397.

Wenger, S. K., Thompson, C. P., & Bartling, C. A. (1980). Recall facilitates subsequent recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 135-144.

Whitten, W. B., II, & Bjork, R. A. (1977). Learning from tests: Effects of spacing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 465-478.

Whitten, W. B., II, & Leonard, J. M. (1980). Learning from tests: Facilitation of delayed recall by initial recognition alternatives. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 127-134.

Wightman, D. C., & Lintern, G. (1985). Part-task training for tracking and manual control. Human Factors, 27(3), 267-283.

Wightman, D. C., & Sistrunk, F. (1987). Part-task training strategies in simulated carrier landing final-approach training. Human Factors, 29(3), 245-254.

Wixson, K. K. (1983). Postreading question—answer interactions and children’s learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 413-423.

Wright, D. L., & Shea, C. H. (1991). Context dependencies in motor skills. Memory & Cognition, 19, 361-370.

Wulf, G., & Schmidt, R. A. (1997). Variability of practice and implicit motor learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 987-1006.

Wulf, G., Shea, C. H., & Matschiner, S. (1998). Frequent feedback enhances complex motor skill learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 30, 180-192.

Wyer, Jr., R. S., Srull, T. K., Gordon, S. E., & Hartwick, J. (1982). Effects of processing objectives on the recall of prose material. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 674-688.

Yaniv, I., Meyer, D. E., & Davidson, N. S. (1995). Dynamic memory processes in retrieving answers to questions: Recall failures, judgments of knowing, and acquisition of information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1509-1521.

Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149, 269-274.

Zaragoza, M. S., & Mitchell, K. J. (1996). Repeated exposure to suggestion and the creation of false memories. Psychological Science, 7, 294-300.

Zechmeister, E. B., & Shaughnessy, J. J. (1980). When you know that you know and when you think that you know but you don’t. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 15, 41-44.

Related